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Dictionaries: From Word Lists to World References

Dictionaries: A Journey Through Time
In the annals of human history, the dictionary stands as a testament to our enduring quest for knowledge and understanding. From the earliest word lists of ancient civilizations to the comprehensive tomes of the modern era, dictionaries have played a pivotal role in shaping language, culture, and society.
A dictionary, at its core, is a reference work that provides definitions, pronunciations, and etymologies of words. It serves as a gateway to the vast and complex world of language, offering insights into the nuances of meaning, the origins of words, and the cultural contexts in which they are used.
The history of dictionaries is a fascinating journey that spans centuries and continents. It begins with the simple word lists of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China, which were primarily used for translation between different languages. As civilizations evolved and knowledge expanded, dictionaries became more sophisticated, incorporating elements of grammar, etymology, and cultural context.
This article will explore the evolution of dictionaries from their humble beginnings to their modern-day forms. We will delve into the key milestones in their development, the influential figures who shaped their creation, and the profound impact they have had on language, education, and society.


Part I: Early Lexicons and Word Lists
The First Steps Towards Dictionaries
The earliest dictionaries can be traced back to the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China. These early lexicons were often simple word lists, primarily used for translation between different languages. For example, Sumerian-Akkadian bilingual word lists, dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE, helped scholars understand both languages.
In ancient Egypt, hieroglyphic texts often included glossaries to explain obscure terms or foreign words. These early glossaries served as precursors to more comprehensive dictionaries that would emerge centuries later.


Part II: Greek and Roman Lexicons
The Classical World and Lexicography
The ancient Greeks and Romans made significant contributions to the development of lexicography. In Greece, scholars compiled glossaries to explain difficult terms in literary works. One of the most famous early lexicons is the “Glossae Sacrae,” which provided explanations for obscure words in Homer’s works.
In Roman times, Varro, a polymath and linguist, compiled works on the Latin language that included explanations of words and grammar. While these works were more encyclopaedic than strictly lexicons, they laid the foundation for future lexicographical efforts.


Part III: Medieval and Early Islamic Lexicons
The Middle Ages and the Expansion of Lexicography
During the Middle Ages, scholars in Europe and the Islamic world continued to develop dictionaries that went beyond simple word lists. Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Fahidi (8th century AD) is recognized as the first Arabic culture author of a dictionary, and his work Al-Ain is the oldest surviving example.
In Europe, Isidore of Seville’s “Etymologiae” (early 7th century) was an important early work, although it was more of an encyclopaedia with linguistic aspects rather than a strictly lexicographical work. Despite its broader scope, the “Etymologiae” contributed to the development of lexicography by providing a framework for organising and categorising knowledge.


Part IV: The First True Dictionaries
The Renaissance and the Birth of Modern Lexicography
The Renaissance marked a significant turning point in the history of lexicography. Driven by the desire to standardise language and promote literacy, scholars and writers began to compile more comprehensive dictionaries.
Robert Caudry’s “A Table of Words” (1604) is recognized as one the earliest English dictionaries ever made. Although relatively small, this dictionary provided definitions for around 2,500 words, making it a valuable resource for those seeking to expand their vocabulary.
In France, lexicographers compiled glossaries of both vernacular and foreign languages. These early dictionaries helped to establish standards for spelling, grammar, and usage, contributing to the development of national languages.
The 17th century witnessed a surge in lexicographical activity, with scholars in various European countries producing dictionaries that were more comprehensive and systematic than their predecessors. These dictionaries often included information on etymology, pronunciation, and usage, providing valuable insights into the evolution of language.

Dictionary NameFirst PublishedType of DictionaryScopeAudienceLexicographic TraditionEdition UpdatesExamples IncludedWord Count or SizeLanguage Family/RegionEtymological FocusPhonetic GuidanceInfluence or Impact
Princeton’s WordNet (USA)1985General-purposeLexical databaseScholars, developersDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesImportant in computational linguistics
Svenska Akademiens Ordlista (Sweden)1874General-purposeSwedish orthographyPublic, scholarsPrescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSwedish (Germanic)YesYesOfficial Swedish dictionary by the Swedish Academy
Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesia)1988General-purposeIndonesian dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndonesian (Austronesian)YesYesNational standard for Indonesian language
Türk Dil Kurumu Sözlük (Turkey)1945General-purposeTurkish language dictionaryPublic, scholarsPrescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumTurkish (Turkic)YesYesOfficial dictionary of the Turkish language
Słownik Języka Polskiego (Poland)1807General-purposePolish language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumPolish (Slavic)YesYesKey reference for Polish language and culture
Nynorskordboka (Norway)1986General-purposeNynorsk language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumNorwegian (Germanic)YesYesStandard reference for Nynorsk (Norwegian variant)
Le Petit Robert (France)1967General-purposeFrench language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumFrench (Indo-European)YesYesPopular among French language learners
Diccionario del español actual (Spain)1999General-purposeSpanish language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSpanish (Indo-European)YesYesKey reference for contemporary Spanish language
Diccionario de Uso del Español (Spain)1966General-purposeSpanish usage dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSpanish (Indo-European)YesYesFocus on modern Spanish usage
Czech Language Institute’s Příruční Slovník1935General-purposeCzech language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumCzech (Slavic)YesYesStandard reference for Czech language
Akademický Slovník (Slovakia)1969General-purposeSlovak language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSlovak (Slavic)YesYesKey academic resource for Slovak
Farhang Moaser (Iran)1992General-purposePersian language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumPersian (Indo-Iranian)YesYesImportant Persian lexicographical resource
Diccionario de argentinismos (Argentina)1911Dialect-specificArgentine Spanish dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallSpanish (Indo-European)YesYesFocuses on regional language variations in Argentina
Retskrivningsordbogen (Denmark)1872General-purposeDanish orthographyPublic, scholarsPrescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumDanish (Germanic)YesYesOfficial Danish spelling and usage guide
Slovar Sovremennogo Russkogo Literaturnogo Yazyka1950sGeneral-purposeRussian language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeRussian (Slavic)YesYesMajor reference for Russian language and literature
Diccionario Enciclopédico Ilustrado (Latin America)1887General-purposeSpanish encyclopedic dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSpanish (Indo-European)YesYesKey reference for Latin American Spanish
Modern Greek Dictionary (Greece)1933General-purposeGreek language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumGreek (Indo-European)YesYesImportant reference for Modern Greek language
Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (Germany)1838General-purposeGerman language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeGerman (Indo-European)YesYesMajor German lexicographical work
Hungarian Academy of Sciences Dictionary1862ScholarlyHungarian language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeHungarian (Uralic)YesYesKey reference for the Hungarian language
The Hobson-Jobson (India/UK)1886General-purposeAnglo-Indian dictionaryScholars, publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesCultural significance in colonial history and studies
Diccionario histórico de la lengua española (Spain)1933HistoricalHistorical Spanish dictionaryScholars, publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeSpanish (Indo-European)YesYesHistorical dictionary of the Spanish language
A Malayalam-English Dictionary (India)1872General-purposeMalayalam-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumMalayalam (Dravidian)YesYesImportant bilingual resource for Malayalam and English
An Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language1950sEtymologicalRussian etymological dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeRussian (Slavic)YesYesMajor etymological reference for the Russian language
Cornish Language Dictionary (Cornwall, UK)1984General-purposeCornish language dictionaryScholars, publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumCornish (Celtic)YesYesImportant for Cornish language revival
Jian Kang Liu’s Chinese-English Dictionary (China)1971General-purposeChinese-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumChinese (Sino-Tibetan)YesYesMajor bilingual dictionary for Chinese-English learners
Feroese-Danish Dictionary (Faroe Islands)1928General-purposeFaroese-Danish dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumFaroese (Germanic)YesYesKey bilingual dictionary for Faroese and Danish
Harrap’s Standard French and English Dictionary (France)1934General-purposeFrench-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumFrench/English (Indo-European)YesYesImportant bilingual dictionary for French and English
Tangorin (Japan)2000sGeneral-purposeJapanese-English dictionaryPublic, learnersDescriptiveOngoing updates (online)YesLargeJapanese (Japonic)YesYesPopular online resource for learners of Japanese
Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto (Esperanto)1970General-purposeEsperanto dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEsperanto (Constructed)YesYesWidely used dictionary for the Esperanto language
Oxford English Dictionary (OED)1884ScholarlyEnglish language dictionaryScholarly and publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLarge (600,000+ words)English (Indo-European)YesYesNational standard, high cultural impact
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary1898General-purposeAmerican English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesWidely used in American English
Larousse1852General-purposeFrench encyclopedic dictionaryGeneral publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumFrench (Indo-European)YesYesImportant in French language and culture
Duden1880General-purposeGerman language dictionaryPublic, educationalPrescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeGerman (Indo-European)YesYesOfficial dictionary for the German language
Diccionario de la lengua española (RAE)1780General-purposeSpanish language dictionaryScholarly and general publicPrescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeSpanish (Indo-European)YesYesOfficial dictionary by the Royal Spanish Academy
Le Grand Robert (France)1964General-purposeFrench language dictionaryPublic, researchersDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeFrench (Indo-European)YesYesCulturally significant in French language
Collins English Dictionary1979General-purposeEnglish language dictionaryGeneral publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesWidely used in the UK and internationally
Cambridge English Dictionary1995General-purposeEnglish language dictionaryStudents, learnersDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesPopular among English language learners
Webster’s New World College Dictionary1951General-purposeAmerican English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesStandard for American English usage
Enciclopedia Italiana (Treccani)1929General-purposeItalian encyclopedic dictionaryScholarly, publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeItalian (Indo-European)YesYesMajor reference for Italian language and culture
Hanyu Da Cidian (China)1986General-purposeChinese dictionaryScholars, publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeChinese (Sino-Tibetan)YesYesStandard reference for Chinese lexicography
Shogakukan Progressive Japanese-English1994General-purposeJapanese-English dictionaryStudents, learnersDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumJapanese (Japonic)NoYesKey reference for learners of Japanese-English translations
Kamus Dewan (Malaysia)1970General-purposeMalay language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumMalay (Austronesian)NoYesNational standard for the Malay language
Diccionario Clave (Spain)1997General-purposeSpanish language dictionaryPublic, learnersDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSpanish (Indo-European)NoYesImportant for contemporary Spanish usage
Dictionnaire Quillet-Flammarion1890sGeneral-purposeFrench language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumFrench (Indo-European)NoYesHistorical significance in French lexicography
Nihongo Daijiten (Japan)1972General-purposeJapanese dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeJapanese (Japonic)YesYesComprehensive reference for the Japanese language
Van Dale Groot Woordenboek (Netherlands)1864General-purposeDutch language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumDutch (Indo-European)NoYesLeading Dutch dictionary
Yule’s Hobson-Jobson1886Dialect-specificAnglo-Indian dictionaryScholars, general publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesCultural and historical impact on colonial studies
Al-Munjid (Arabic)1908General-purposeArabic language dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumArabic (Afro-Asiatic)YesYesKey Arabic lexicon
Chambers English Dictionary1872General-purposeEnglish language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEnglish (Indo-European)YesYesWidely used in the UK
Latin-Italian Dictionary (Italy)1943General-purposeLatin-Italian dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumLatin (Indo-European)YesYesHistorical reference for classical Latin language in Italy
Makassar-Indonesian Dictionary (Indonesia)1951Dialect-specificMakassar-Indonesian dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallAustronesian (Makassar-Indonesian)YesYesKey resource for regional Makassar language and culture
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (UK)1838HistoricalOld English dictionaryScholars, linguistsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeGermanic (Anglo-Saxon)YesYesImportant for the study of Old English and Anglo-Saxon culture
Tok Pisin-English Dictionary (Papua New Guinea)1971General-purposeTok Pisin-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumCreole (Tok Pisin-English)YesYesStandard reference for learning Tok Pisin
Xhosa Dictionary (South Africa)1989General-purposeXhosa language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumBantu (Xhosa)YesYesCritical for preserving and studying the Xhosa language
Twi-English Dictionary (Ghana)1881General-purposeTwi-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumNiger-Congo (Twi)YesYesWidely used for studying Twi in educational and cultural contexts
Zarma-French Dictionary (Niger)1998General-purposeZarma-French dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallNilo-Saharan (Zarma)YesYesImportant for translation and study of Zarma language
Ojibwe-English Dictionary (USA/Canada)1975General-purposeOjibwe-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumAlgonquian (Ojibwe)YesYesKey resource for preserving and teaching Ojibwe language
Inuktitut-English Dictionary (Canada)1998General-purposeInuktitut-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumEskimo-Aleut (Inuktitut)YesYesCritical for language revitalization efforts in Inuit communities
Swahili-English Dictionary (East Africa)1939General-purposeSwahili-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeBantu (Swahili)YesYesMajor resource for learning Swahili in East Africa
Lingala-French Dictionary (Congo)1968General-purposeLingala-French dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumBantu (Lingala)YesYesImportant for understanding and translating Lingala in Congo
Sinhala-English Dictionary (Sri Lanka)1876General-purposeSinhala-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-European (Sinhala)YesYesKey resource for learning Sinhala
Quechua-Spanish Dictionary (Peru)1608HistoricalQuechua-Spanish dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumQuechuan (Quechua)YesYesHistorically significant for preserving the Quechua language
Bengali-Bangla Academy Dictionary (Bangladesh)1960General-purposeBengali language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeIndo-European (Bengali)YesYesStandard dictionary for Bengali language and culture
Panjabi-English Dictionary (India/Pakistan)1895General-purposePanjabi-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-European (Panjabi)YesYesImportant for Panjabi speakers and students of the language
Ladino-Spanish Dictionary (Sephardic Jews)1970sGeneral-purposeLadino-Spanish dictionaryScholars, publicDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallRomance (Ladino)YesYesImportant for preserving Sephardic Jewish culture and language
Dari-English Dictionary (Afghanistan)1988General-purposeDari-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-Iranian (Dari)YesYesWidely used for learning and translation in Dari
Armenian-English Dictionary (Armenia)1836General-purposeArmenian-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-European (Armenian)YesYesCritical for Armenian-English translation and studies
Warlpiri Dictionary (Australia)1993General-purposeWarlpiri-English dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallPama-Nyungan (Warlpiri)YesYesKey for studying the Warlpiri language and its use in Australia
Chickasaw-English Dictionary (USA)1973General-purposeChickasaw-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallMuskogean (Chickasaw)YesYesCritical resource for the preservation of the Chickasaw language
Somali-English Dictionary (Somalia)1976General-purposeSomali-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesAfro-Asiatic (Somali)YesYesImportant for Somali-English translation and cultural studies
Romanian-English Dictionary (Romania)1899General-purposeRomanian-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Romanian)YesYesStandard Romanian-English reference
Tibetan-English Dictionary (Tibet/China)1902General-purposeTibetan-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSino-Tibetan (Tibetan)YesYesSignificant for Tibetan language studies
Haitian Creole-English Dictionary (Haiti)1981General-purposeHaitian Creole-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumCreole (Haitian Creole)YesYesKey for understanding Haitian Creole and culture
Luganda-English Dictionary (Uganda)1911General-purposeLuganda-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesBantu (Luganda)YesYesWidely used in Uganda for education and cultural studies
Dzongkha-English Dictionary (Bhutan)1999General-purposeDzongkha-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesSmallTibeto-Burman (Dzongkha)YesYesCritical for understanding and learning Dzongkha
Maori-English Dictionary (New Zealand)1840General-purposeMaori-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesAustronesian (Maori)YesYesImportant for the revitalization and teaching of the Maori language
Pashto-English Dictionary (Afghanistan/Pakistan)1867General-purposePashto-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-Iranian (Pashto)YesYesWidely used for translation and education in Pashto
Sanskrit-English Dictionary (India)1872General-purposeSanskrit-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeIndo-European (Sanskrit)YesYesMajor historical and linguistic resource for Sanskrit studies
Ilocano-English Dictionary (Philippines)1904General-purposeIlocano-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesAustronesian (Ilocano)YesYesWidely used for learning Ilocano
Akan-Twi Dictionary (Ghana)1909General-purposeAkan-Twi dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumNiger-Congo (Akan)YesYesKey resource for studying the Akan-Twi language
Nahuatl-Spanish Dictionary (Mexico)1555HistoricalNahuatl-Spanish dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumUto-Aztecan (Nahuatl)YesYesSignificant historical and cultural resource for Nahuatl language
Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (Germany)1900ScholarlyLatin thesaurusScholars, academicsDescriptiveOngoingYesLargeIndo-European (Latin)YesYesMajor scholarly work on classical Latin vocabulary, covering all known Latin texts.
Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon (Ancient Greek)1843ScholarlyGreek-English lexiconScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeIndo-European (Greek)YesYesMost comprehensive Ancient Greek-English lexicon, foundational for Greek studies.
The Century Dictionary (USA)1889General-purposeEnglish language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeIndo-European (English)YesYesHighly regarded American English dictionary, covering late 19th-century English.
Kamus Al-Miftah (Malaysia)1937General-purposeMalay-Arabic dictionaryStudents, scholarsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumAustronesian (Malay) and Afro-Asiatic (Arabic)YesYesEarly Malay-Arabic dictionary, significant for Islamic scholarship in Malaysia.
Totius’ Woordeboek (Afrikaans)1933General-purposeAfrikaans language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumGermanic (Afrikaans)YesYesOne of the first comprehensive dictionaries of the Afrikaans language.
Croatian Encyclopedia Dictionary (Croatia)1950sGeneral-purposeCroatian language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeSlavic (Croatian)YesYesKey dictionary documenting the Croatian language, important for national identity.
Diccionario Gallego-Castellano (Spain)1863Dialect-specificGalician-Spanish dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Galician)YesYesOne of the earliest comprehensive dictionaries for Galician.
Vocabulaire Orthographique (France)1901General-purposeFrench orthographyPublic, scholarsPrescriptiveLimitedNoSmallRomance (French)YesYesEarly French spelling guide, foundational for orthography.
Sanskrit-Wörterbuch (Germany)1855EtymologicalSanskrit-German dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumIndo-European (Sanskrit)YesYesImportant resource for German scholars studying Sanskrit.
Icelandic-English Dictionary (Cleasby-Vigfusson, Iceland)1874General-purposeIcelandic-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumGermanic (Icelandic)YesYesStill influential for the study of Old Norse and Icelandic languages.
Dictionnaire Historique de l’Ancien Langage Français (France)1844HistoricalHistorical French dictionaryScholars, historiansDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumRomance (Old French)YesYesImportant for documenting medieval French vocabulary and texts.
Harper’s Latin Dictionary (USA)1879General-purposeLatin-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-European (Latin)YesYesWidely used Latin-to-English dictionary in academic settings.
Svenska Akademiens Ordbok (Sweden)1893General-purposeSwedish language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveOngoingYesLargeGermanic (Swedish)YesYesOngoing dictionary project documenting Swedish from its earliest forms.
Diccionario de Chilenismos (Chile)1901Dialect-specificChilean Spanish dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Spanish)YesYesComprehensive dictionary of regional Chilean Spanish expressions.
Académie Française Dictionary (France)1694General-purposeFrench language dictionaryPublic, scholarsPrescriptiveRegularYesLargeRomance (French)YesYesA standard-setting dictionary for the French language, highly influential.
Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (India)1899EtymologicalSanskrit-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeIndo-European (Sanskrit)YesYesWidely used by students and scholars for Sanskrit studies.
Slownik polszczyzny XVI wieku (Poland)1950Historical16th century Polish dictionaryScholars, historiansDescriptiveOngoingYesMediumSlavic (Polish)YesYesHistorical dictionary documenting the 16th-century Polish language.
Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue (Scotland)1931HistoricalScottish language dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumGermanic (Scots)YesYesMajor resource for the study of older Scots language.
Cassell’s Latin Dictionary (UK)1854General-purposeLatin-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumIndo-European (Latin)YesYesWidely used Latin-to-English dictionary.
Norstedts Svensk-Engelsk Ordbok (Sweden)1988General-purposeSwedish-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumGermanic (Swedish)YesYesMajor bilingual Swedish-English dictionary.
Diccionario de Mexicanismos (Mexico)2010Dialect-specificMexican Spanish dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Spanish)YesYesDocuments regional Mexican Spanish, highly influential in Mexican linguistics.
Slovník Slovenského Jazyka (Slovakia)1959General-purposeSlovak language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeSlavic (Slovak)YesYesAuthoritative dictionary for the Slovak language.
Albanian-French Dictionary (Albania)1908General-purposeAlbanian-French dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumIndo-European (Albanian)YesYesImportant dictionary for Albanian and French translation.
Alfredo Panzini’s Dizionario Moderno (Italy)1905General-purposeItalian language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Italian)YesYesDocuments new Italian words and slang.
Diccionario Maya Cordemex (Mexico)1980Dialect-specificMaya-Spanish dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumMayan (Yucatec Maya)YesYesComprehensive dictionary for the Yucatec Maya language.
Persian-English Dictionary by Steingass (Iran)1892General-purposePersian-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeIndo-Iranian (Persian)YesYesOne of the most comprehensive Persian-English dictionaries.
Dictionnaire Latin-Français (France)1934General-purposeLatin-French dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumIndo-European (Latin)YesYesA major Latin-French dictionary, highly influential in France.
Cassell’s Italian Dictionary (UK)1958General-purposeItalian-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Italian)YesYesWidely used Italian-English dictionary.
Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Basque (France/Spain)1966EtymologicalBasque etymological dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumIsolate (Basque)YesYesComprehensive resource for Basque language etymology.
Dictionary of the Irish Language (Ireland)1913HistoricalIrish language dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveOngoingYesLargeCeltic (Irish)YesYesMonumental dictionary documenting Old and Middle Irish.
Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca (Italy)1612HistoricalItalian language dictionaryPublic, scholarsPrescriptiveRegularYesLargeRomance (Italian)YesYesThe first Italian dictionary, foundational in setting language standards.
Somali-English Dictionary by Zorc (Somalia)1992General-purposeSomali-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumAfro-Asiatic (Somali)YesYesComprehensive resource for Somali-English translation.
Hungarian-English Dictionary by Országh (Hungary)1959General-purposeHungarian-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumUralic (Hungarian)YesYesKey resource for Hungarian-English translation.
Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu (East Africa)1981General-purposeSwahili language dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeBantu (Swahili)YesYesStandard Swahili dictionary, important for language standardization.
Kamus Bahasa Sunda (Indonesia)1990General-purposeSundanese language dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumAustronesian (Sundanese)YesYesComprehensive dictionary of Sundanese, a language spoken in Java.
Dictionnaire Fon-Français (Benin)1999General-purposeFon-French dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumNiger-Congo (Fon)YesYesKey resource for studying the Fon language and culture.
Polish-English Dictionary by Stanisław Stachowski (Poland)1971General-purposePolish-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSlavic (Polish)YesYesWidely used resource for Polish-English translation.
Diccionario de Cubanismos (Cuba)2000Dialect-specificCuban Spanish dictionaryPublic, scholarsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumRomance (Spanish)YesYesCovers unique expressions and idioms of Cuban Spanish.
Oxford Latin Dictionary (UK)1968General-purposeLatin dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveOngoingYesLargeIndo-European (Latin)YesYesModern Latin dictionary, based on classical sources.
The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (Ancient Aramaic)1987ScholarlyAramaic lexiconScholars, studentsDescriptiveOngoingYesLargeAfro-Asiatic (Aramaic)YesYesDocuments the multiple dialects of ancient Aramaic, essential for biblical and ancient Near Eastern studies.
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary (India)1953ScholarlyBuddhist Hybrid Sanskrit dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumIndo-European (Sanskrit)YesYesDocuments hybrid language used in Buddhist texts, essential for the study of Buddhist literature.
Kangxi Dictionary (China)1716General-purposeClassical Chinese dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesLargeSino-Tibetan (Chinese)YesYesAuthoritative resource for classical Chinese characters, foundational in Chinese lexicography.
Groot Woordenboek Afrikaans en Nederlands (South Africa)1950General-purposeAfrikaans-Dutch dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumGermanic (Afrikaans, Dutch)YesYesAuthoritative dictionary for Afrikaans and Dutch, essential for bilingual speakers and scholars.
Bosnian-English Dictionary by Francis Joseph Steingass (Bosnia)1884General-purposeBosnian-English dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumSlavic (Bosnian)YesYesImportant resource for Bosnian-English translation.
Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (Hebrew)1843EtymologicalHebrew-Aramaic lexiconScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumAfro-Asiatic (Hebrew, Aramaic)YesYesKey lexicon for biblical Hebrew and ancient Aramaic studies.
Slownik Etymologiczny Języka Polskiego (Poland)1927EtymologicalPolish etymological dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveMultiple editionsYesMediumSlavic (Polish)YesYesEtymological dictionary, essential for studying the roots of the Polish language.
Bamana-English Dictionary (Mali)1984General-purposeBamana-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumNiger-Congo (Bamana)YesYesKey resource for studying the Bamana language, spoken in Mali.
Le Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse (France)1863General-purposeFrench encyclopedic dictionaryPublic, studentsDescriptiveOngoingYesLargeRomance (French)YesYesMajor French dictionary and encyclopedia, highly influential in French-speaking world.
Korean-English Dictionary by Samuel E. Martin (Korea)1961General-purposeKorean-English dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumKoreanic (Korean)YesYesComprehensive dictionary for Korean-English translation.
Diccionario Quechua-Español (Peru)1608HistoricalQuechua-Spanish dictionaryScholars, studentsDescriptiveLimitedYesMediumQuechuan (Quechua)YesYesDocuments Quechua, essential for the study of Andean languages.


Part V: Milestones in Lexicography (17th-18th Centuries)
The Age of Enlightenment and the Growth of Dictionaries
The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of great intellectual and cultural ferment, known as the Age of Enlightenment. This era witnessed a surge in lexicographical activity, as scholars sought to document and understand the complexities of language.
The creation of the “Dictionary” in 1755, which is widely regarded as one of America’s most important contributions to dictionaries, is a significant achievement by Samuel Johnson. Johnson’s dictionary was groundbreaking in its scope and depth, providing definitions, etymologies, and usage examples for thousands of words. It had a profound impact on the English language, helping to standardize spelling and grammar and shaping the way English is used today.
In Italy, the Accademia della Crusca published a significant Italian dictionary in 1612, which aimed to preserve and promote the purity of the Italian language. This dictionary became a model for lexicographers worldwide, setting a high standard for lexicographical accuracy and scholarship.
In France, the Dictionnaire de l’Académie française (1694) became a key reference for the French language. This dictionary was created by a group of scholars appointed by the French government and was intended to standardize French spelling, grammar, and usage.
The 18th century also saw the development of dictionaries in other European languages, such as Spanish, German, and Russian. These dictionaries played a crucial role in promoting national identity and preserving linguistic heritage.

The 19th Century and the Rise of National Dictionaries
The 19th century was a period of great political and social change, characterized by the rise of nation-states and the growth of nationalism. This era also witnessed a renewed interest in language and linguistics, leading to the development of comprehensive national dictionaries.
One of the most ambitious dictionary projects of the 19th century was the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), which began in the mid-1800s and was not completed until 1928. The OED aimed to document every word in the English language, along with their histories and etymologies. It remains one of the most comprehensive dictionaries to this day.
In the United States, Noah Webster’s “American Dictionary of the English Language” (1828) played a significant role in establishing American English as a distinct dialect. Webster’s dictionary sought to promote American usage and spelling, differentiating it from British English.
In other parts of the world, national dictionaries were also being developed. In Germany, the Grimm Brothers’ “Deutsches Wörterbuch” (1838-1961) was a monumental undertaking that documented the German language in all its regional and historical variations.
The 19th century also saw the emergence of specialized dictionaries, such as dictionaries of science, technology, and law. These dictionaries catered to the needs of professionals and scholars, providing specialized terminology and definitions.
The 20th Century and the Digital Age
The 20th century was a period of rapid technological change, with the advent of radio, television, and computers. These technologies had a profound impact on language and communication, and they also influenced the development of dictionaries.
In the mid-20th century, the first electronic dictionaries appeared, which were stored on magnetic tape or optical discs. These early electronic dictionaries were limited in their functionality, but they paved the way for the development of more sophisticated digital dictionaries.
The Internet’s arrival in the late 20th and early 21st centuries caused a shift in how people use and access dictionaries. Online dictionaries, such as Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary Online, offer a wealth of information at the click of a button. These dictionaries can be searched by word, phrase, or topic, and they often include audio pronunciations, usage examples, and etymological information.
The digital age has also led to the development of new types of dictionaries, such as corpus-based dictionaries and historical dictionaries. Corpus-based dictionaries are based on large collections of text data, which can be used to analyse language patterns and trends. Historical dictionaries trace the development of words and meanings over time, providing valuable insights into the history of language.
The history of lexicography is a long and fascinating one, with dictionaries playing a vital role in shaping language, culture, and society. From the early word lists of ancient civilizations to the sophisticated online dictionaries of today, dictionaries have evolved to meet the changing needs of language users. As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see further innovations in lexicography, ensuring that dictionaries remain essential tools for understanding and communicating in the years to come.


Part VI: The Digital Age and the Future of Dictionaries
The Impact of Technology on Lexicography
The 20th and 21st centuries have witnessed a profound transformation in the way dictionaries are created, accessed, and used. The advent of digital technology has revolutionized lexicography, leading to the development of new types of dictionaries and new ways of accessing information.
One of the most significant developments in the digital age has been the creation of online dictionaries. These dictionaries offer a wealth of information at the click of a button, including definitions, pronunciations, etymologies, and usage examples. Online dictionaries are often more accessible and user-friendly than traditional print dictionaries, making them popular among students, researchers, and the general public.
Another important development has been the creation of corpus-based dictionaries. These dictionaries are based on large collections of text data, which can be used to analyze language patterns and trends. Corpus-based dictionaries can provide valuable insights into the way language is used in different contexts, making them useful for linguists, writers, and translators.
The digital age has also led to the development of specialized dictionaries, such as dictionaries of slang, jargon, and technical terms. These dictionaries cater to the needs of specific groups of people, providing them with the information they need to understand and communicate effectively.

Challenges and Opportunities
The digital age presents both challenges and opportunities for lexicographers. One of the main challenges is the rapid pace of language change, which can make it difficult to keep dictionaries up-to-date. Words and phrases are given new meanings as they develop, and the meaning of old words changes over time. Lexicographers must work hard to stay on top of these changes and ensure that their dictionaries are accurate and relevant.
Furthermore, the Internet is plagued by falsehoods and deceptions. This can make it difficult to distinguish between reliable and unreliable sources of information. Dictionaries can play a crucial role in combating misinformation by providing accurate and authoritative definitions.
Despite these challenges, the digital age also presents many opportunities for lexicographers. The availability of large amounts of digital text data can be used to create more comprehensive and accurate dictionaries. Additionally, the development of new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and natural language processing, can help lexicographers automate certain tasks and improve the efficiency of their work.
The Future of Dictionaries
The future of dictionaries is likely to be shaped by ongoing technological advancements. As artificial intelligence and natural language processing continue to develop, we can expect to see even more sophisticated dictionaries that can provide personalised information and insights.
One possibility is the development of intelligent dictionaries that can learn from user interactions and adapt to individual needs. These dictionaries could provide context-sensitive definitions, suggest synonyms and antonyms, and even offer translations in multiple languages.
Another possibility is the creation of augmented reality dictionaries that can provide information about words and phrases in real-time. For example, a user could point their smartphone at a word in a book or on a sign, and the dictionary app would instantly display the definition and pronunciation.
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected and globalised, the role of dictionaries will only become more important. Dictionaries can help us to bridge cultural and linguistic divides, promote understanding, and foster cooperation.
Conclusion
The history of dictionaries is a long and fascinating one, with these reference works playing a vital role in shaping language, culture, and society. From the early word lists of ancient civilizations to the sophisticated online dictionaries of today, dictionaries have evolved to meet the changing needs of language users.
The digital age has revolutionised lexicography, leading to the development of new types of dictionaries and new ways of accessing information. While the challenges of keeping up with language change and combating misinformation remain, the opportunities for innovation and improvement in the field of lexicography are also significant.
As we look to the future, we can expect to see even more sophisticated and innovative dictionaries that will continue to play a vital role in our lives. Whether we are students, researchers, or simply curious about the world around us, dictionaries will remain essential tools for understanding and communicating effectively.