Dictionaries: A Journey Through Time
In the annals of human history, the dictionary stands as a testament to our enduring quest for knowledge and understanding. From the earliest word lists of ancient civilizations to the comprehensive tomes of the modern era, dictionaries have played a pivotal role in shaping language, culture, and society.
A dictionary, at its core, is a reference work that provides definitions, pronunciations, and etymologies of words. It serves as a gateway to the vast and complex world of language, offering insights into the nuances of meaning, the origins of words, and the cultural contexts in which they are used.
The history of dictionaries is a fascinating journey that spans centuries and continents. It begins with the simple word lists of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China, which were primarily used for translation between different languages. As civilizations evolved and knowledge expanded, dictionaries became more sophisticated, incorporating elements of grammar, etymology, and cultural context.
This article will explore the evolution of dictionaries from their humble beginnings to their modern-day forms. We will delve into the key milestones in their development, the influential figures who shaped their creation, and the profound impact they have had on language, education, and society.
Part I: Early Lexicons and Word Lists
The First Steps Towards Dictionaries
The earliest dictionaries can be traced back to the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China. These early lexicons were often simple word lists, primarily used for translation between different languages. For example, Sumerian-Akkadian bilingual word lists, dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE, helped scholars understand both languages.
In ancient Egypt, hieroglyphic texts often included glossaries to explain obscure terms or foreign words. These early glossaries served as precursors to more comprehensive dictionaries that would emerge centuries later.
Part II: Greek and Roman Lexicons
The Classical World and Lexicography
The ancient Greeks and Romans made significant contributions to the development of lexicography. In Greece, scholars compiled glossaries to explain difficult terms in literary works. One of the most famous early lexicons is the “Glossae Sacrae,” which provided explanations for obscure words in Homer’s works.
In Roman times, Varro, a polymath and linguist, compiled works on the Latin language that included explanations of words and grammar. While these works were more encyclopaedic than strictly lexicons, they laid the foundation for future lexicographical efforts.
Part III: Medieval and Early Islamic Lexicons
The Middle Ages and the Expansion of Lexicography
During the Middle Ages, scholars in Europe and the Islamic world continued to develop dictionaries that went beyond simple word lists. Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Fahidi (8th century AD) is recognized as the first Arabic culture author of a dictionary, and his work Al-Ain is the oldest surviving example.
In Europe, Isidore of Seville’s “Etymologiae” (early 7th century) was an important early work, although it was more of an encyclopaedia with linguistic aspects rather than a strictly lexicographical work. Despite its broader scope, the “Etymologiae” contributed to the development of lexicography by providing a framework for organising and categorising knowledge.
Part IV: The First True Dictionaries
The Renaissance and the Birth of Modern Lexicography
The Renaissance marked a significant turning point in the history of lexicography. Driven by the desire to standardise language and promote literacy, scholars and writers began to compile more comprehensive dictionaries.
Robert Caudry’s “A Table of Words” (1604) is recognized as one the earliest English dictionaries ever made. Although relatively small, this dictionary provided definitions for around 2,500 words, making it a valuable resource for those seeking to expand their vocabulary.
In France, lexicographers compiled glossaries of both vernacular and foreign languages. These early dictionaries helped to establish standards for spelling, grammar, and usage, contributing to the development of national languages.
The 17th century witnessed a surge in lexicographical activity, with scholars in various European countries producing dictionaries that were more comprehensive and systematic than their predecessors. These dictionaries often included information on etymology, pronunciation, and usage, providing valuable insights into the evolution of language.
| Dictionary Name | First Published | Type of Dictionary | Scope | Audience | Lexicographic Tradition | Edition Updates | Examples Included | Word Count or Size | Language Family/Region | Etymological Focus | Phonetic Guidance | Influence or Impact |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Princeton’s WordNet (USA) | 1985 | General-purpose | Lexical database | Scholars, developers | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Important in computational linguistics |
| Svenska Akademiens Ordlista (Sweden) | 1874 | General-purpose | Swedish orthography | Public, scholars | Prescriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Swedish (Germanic) | Yes | Yes | Official Swedish dictionary by the Swedish Academy |
| Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesia) | 1988 | General-purpose | Indonesian dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indonesian (Austronesian) | Yes | Yes | National standard for Indonesian language |
| Türk Dil Kurumu Sözlük (Turkey) | 1945 | General-purpose | Turkish language dictionary | Public, scholars | Prescriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Turkish (Turkic) | Yes | Yes | Official dictionary of the Turkish language |
| Słownik Języka Polskiego (Poland) | 1807 | General-purpose | Polish language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Polish (Slavic) | Yes | Yes | Key reference for Polish language and culture |
| Nynorskordboka (Norway) | 1986 | General-purpose | Nynorsk language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Norwegian (Germanic) | Yes | Yes | Standard reference for Nynorsk (Norwegian variant) |
| Le Petit Robert (France) | 1967 | General-purpose | French language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | French (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Popular among French language learners |
| Diccionario del español actual (Spain) | 1999 | General-purpose | Spanish language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Spanish (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Key reference for contemporary Spanish language |
| Diccionario de Uso del Español (Spain) | 1966 | General-purpose | Spanish usage dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Spanish (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Focus on modern Spanish usage |
| Czech Language Institute’s Příruční Slovník | 1935 | General-purpose | Czech language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Czech (Slavic) | Yes | Yes | Standard reference for Czech language |
| Akademický Slovník (Slovakia) | 1969 | General-purpose | Slovak language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Slovak (Slavic) | Yes | Yes | Key academic resource for Slovak |
| Farhang Moaser (Iran) | 1992 | General-purpose | Persian language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Persian (Indo-Iranian) | Yes | Yes | Important Persian lexicographical resource |
| Diccionario de argentinismos (Argentina) | 1911 | Dialect-specific | Argentine Spanish dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Spanish (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Focuses on regional language variations in Argentina |
| Retskrivningsordbogen (Denmark) | 1872 | General-purpose | Danish orthography | Public, scholars | Prescriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Danish (Germanic) | Yes | Yes | Official Danish spelling and usage guide |
| Slovar Sovremennogo Russkogo Literaturnogo Yazyka | 1950s | General-purpose | Russian language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Russian (Slavic) | Yes | Yes | Major reference for Russian language and literature |
| Diccionario Enciclopédico Ilustrado (Latin America) | 1887 | General-purpose | Spanish encyclopedic dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Spanish (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Key reference for Latin American Spanish |
| Modern Greek Dictionary (Greece) | 1933 | General-purpose | Greek language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Greek (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Important reference for Modern Greek language |
| Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (Germany) | 1838 | General-purpose | German language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | German (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Major German lexicographical work |
| Hungarian Academy of Sciences Dictionary | 1862 | Scholarly | Hungarian language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Hungarian (Uralic) | Yes | Yes | Key reference for the Hungarian language |
| The Hobson-Jobson (India/UK) | 1886 | General-purpose | Anglo-Indian dictionary | Scholars, public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Cultural significance in colonial history and studies |
| Diccionario histórico de la lengua española (Spain) | 1933 | Historical | Historical Spanish dictionary | Scholars, public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Spanish (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Historical dictionary of the Spanish language |
| A Malayalam-English Dictionary (India) | 1872 | General-purpose | Malayalam-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Malayalam (Dravidian) | Yes | Yes | Important bilingual resource for Malayalam and English |
| An Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language | 1950s | Etymological | Russian etymological dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Russian (Slavic) | Yes | Yes | Major etymological reference for the Russian language |
| Cornish Language Dictionary (Cornwall, UK) | 1984 | General-purpose | Cornish language dictionary | Scholars, public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Cornish (Celtic) | Yes | Yes | Important for Cornish language revival |
| Jian Kang Liu’s Chinese-English Dictionary (China) | 1971 | General-purpose | Chinese-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Chinese (Sino-Tibetan) | Yes | Yes | Major bilingual dictionary for Chinese-English learners |
| Feroese-Danish Dictionary (Faroe Islands) | 1928 | General-purpose | Faroese-Danish dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Faroese (Germanic) | Yes | Yes | Key bilingual dictionary for Faroese and Danish |
| Harrap’s Standard French and English Dictionary (France) | 1934 | General-purpose | French-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | French/English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Important bilingual dictionary for French and English |
| Tangorin (Japan) | 2000s | General-purpose | Japanese-English dictionary | Public, learners | Descriptive | Ongoing updates (online) | Yes | Large | Japanese (Japonic) | Yes | Yes | Popular online resource for learners of Japanese |
| Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto (Esperanto) | 1970 | General-purpose | Esperanto dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Esperanto (Constructed) | Yes | Yes | Widely used dictionary for the Esperanto language |
| Oxford English Dictionary (OED) | 1884 | Scholarly | English language dictionary | Scholarly and public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large (600,000+ words) | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | National standard, high cultural impact |
| Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary | 1898 | General-purpose | American English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Widely used in American English |
| Larousse | 1852 | General-purpose | French encyclopedic dictionary | General public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | French (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Important in French language and culture |
| Duden | 1880 | General-purpose | German language dictionary | Public, educational | Prescriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | German (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Official dictionary for the German language |
| Diccionario de la lengua española (RAE) | 1780 | General-purpose | Spanish language dictionary | Scholarly and general public | Prescriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Spanish (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Official dictionary by the Royal Spanish Academy |
| Le Grand Robert (France) | 1964 | General-purpose | French language dictionary | Public, researchers | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | French (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Culturally significant in French language |
| Collins English Dictionary | 1979 | General-purpose | English language dictionary | General public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Widely used in the UK and internationally |
| Cambridge English Dictionary | 1995 | General-purpose | English language dictionary | Students, learners | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Popular among English language learners |
| Webster’s New World College Dictionary | 1951 | General-purpose | American English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Standard for American English usage |
| Enciclopedia Italiana (Treccani) | 1929 | General-purpose | Italian encyclopedic dictionary | Scholarly, public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Italian (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Major reference for Italian language and culture |
| Hanyu Da Cidian (China) | 1986 | General-purpose | Chinese dictionary | Scholars, public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Chinese (Sino-Tibetan) | Yes | Yes | Standard reference for Chinese lexicography |
| Shogakukan Progressive Japanese-English | 1994 | General-purpose | Japanese-English dictionary | Students, learners | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Japanese (Japonic) | No | Yes | Key reference for learners of Japanese-English translations |
| Kamus Dewan (Malaysia) | 1970 | General-purpose | Malay language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Malay (Austronesian) | No | Yes | National standard for the Malay language |
| Diccionario Clave (Spain) | 1997 | General-purpose | Spanish language dictionary | Public, learners | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Spanish (Indo-European) | No | Yes | Important for contemporary Spanish usage |
| Dictionnaire Quillet-Flammarion | 1890s | General-purpose | French language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | French (Indo-European) | No | Yes | Historical significance in French lexicography |
| Nihongo Daijiten (Japan) | 1972 | General-purpose | Japanese dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Japanese (Japonic) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive reference for the Japanese language |
| Van Dale Groot Woordenboek (Netherlands) | 1864 | General-purpose | Dutch language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Dutch (Indo-European) | No | Yes | Leading Dutch dictionary |
| Yule’s Hobson-Jobson | 1886 | Dialect-specific | Anglo-Indian dictionary | Scholars, general public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Cultural and historical impact on colonial studies |
| Al-Munjid (Arabic) | 1908 | General-purpose | Arabic language dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Arabic (Afro-Asiatic) | Yes | Yes | Key Arabic lexicon |
| Chambers English Dictionary | 1872 | General-purpose | English language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | English (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Widely used in the UK |
| Latin-Italian Dictionary (Italy) | 1943 | General-purpose | Latin-Italian dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Latin (Indo-European) | Yes | Yes | Historical reference for classical Latin language in Italy |
| Makassar-Indonesian Dictionary (Indonesia) | 1951 | Dialect-specific | Makassar-Indonesian dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Austronesian (Makassar-Indonesian) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for regional Makassar language and culture |
| Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (UK) | 1838 | Historical | Old English dictionary | Scholars, linguists | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) | Yes | Yes | Important for the study of Old English and Anglo-Saxon culture |
| Tok Pisin-English Dictionary (Papua New Guinea) | 1971 | General-purpose | Tok Pisin-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Creole (Tok Pisin-English) | Yes | Yes | Standard reference for learning Tok Pisin |
| Xhosa Dictionary (South Africa) | 1989 | General-purpose | Xhosa language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Bantu (Xhosa) | Yes | Yes | Critical for preserving and studying the Xhosa language |
| Twi-English Dictionary (Ghana) | 1881 | General-purpose | Twi-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Niger-Congo (Twi) | Yes | Yes | Widely used for studying Twi in educational and cultural contexts |
| Zarma-French Dictionary (Niger) | 1998 | General-purpose | Zarma-French dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Nilo-Saharan (Zarma) | Yes | Yes | Important for translation and study of Zarma language |
| Ojibwe-English Dictionary (USA/Canada) | 1975 | General-purpose | Ojibwe-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Algonquian (Ojibwe) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for preserving and teaching Ojibwe language |
| Inuktitut-English Dictionary (Canada) | 1998 | General-purpose | Inuktitut-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Eskimo-Aleut (Inuktitut) | Yes | Yes | Critical for language revitalization efforts in Inuit communities |
| Swahili-English Dictionary (East Africa) | 1939 | General-purpose | Swahili-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Bantu (Swahili) | Yes | Yes | Major resource for learning Swahili in East Africa |
| Lingala-French Dictionary (Congo) | 1968 | General-purpose | Lingala-French dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Bantu (Lingala) | Yes | Yes | Important for understanding and translating Lingala in Congo |
| Sinhala-English Dictionary (Sri Lanka) | 1876 | General-purpose | Sinhala-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Sinhala) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for learning Sinhala |
| Quechua-Spanish Dictionary (Peru) | 1608 | Historical | Quechua-Spanish dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Quechuan (Quechua) | Yes | Yes | Historically significant for preserving the Quechua language |
| Bengali-Bangla Academy Dictionary (Bangladesh) | 1960 | General-purpose | Bengali language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Indo-European (Bengali) | Yes | Yes | Standard dictionary for Bengali language and culture |
| Panjabi-English Dictionary (India/Pakistan) | 1895 | General-purpose | Panjabi-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Panjabi) | Yes | Yes | Important for Panjabi speakers and students of the language |
| Ladino-Spanish Dictionary (Sephardic Jews) | 1970s | General-purpose | Ladino-Spanish dictionary | Scholars, public | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Romance (Ladino) | Yes | Yes | Important for preserving Sephardic Jewish culture and language |
| Dari-English Dictionary (Afghanistan) | 1988 | General-purpose | Dari-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-Iranian (Dari) | Yes | Yes | Widely used for learning and translation in Dari |
| Armenian-English Dictionary (Armenia) | 1836 | General-purpose | Armenian-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Armenian) | Yes | Yes | Critical for Armenian-English translation and studies |
| Warlpiri Dictionary (Australia) | 1993 | General-purpose | Warlpiri-English dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Pama-Nyungan (Warlpiri) | Yes | Yes | Key for studying the Warlpiri language and its use in Australia |
| Chickasaw-English Dictionary (USA) | 1973 | General-purpose | Chickasaw-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Muskogean (Chickasaw) | Yes | Yes | Critical resource for the preservation of the Chickasaw language |
| Somali-English Dictionary (Somalia) | 1976 | General-purpose | Somali-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Afro-Asiatic (Somali) | Yes | Yes | Important for Somali-English translation and cultural studies | |
| Romanian-English Dictionary (Romania) | 1899 | General-purpose | Romanian-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Romanian) | Yes | Yes | Standard Romanian-English reference |
| Tibetan-English Dictionary (Tibet/China) | 1902 | General-purpose | Tibetan-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Sino-Tibetan (Tibetan) | Yes | Yes | Significant for Tibetan language studies |
| Haitian Creole-English Dictionary (Haiti) | 1981 | General-purpose | Haitian Creole-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Creole (Haitian Creole) | Yes | Yes | Key for understanding Haitian Creole and culture |
| Luganda-English Dictionary (Uganda) | 1911 | General-purpose | Luganda-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Bantu (Luganda) | Yes | Yes | Widely used in Uganda for education and cultural studies | |
| Dzongkha-English Dictionary (Bhutan) | 1999 | General-purpose | Dzongkha-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Small | Tibeto-Burman (Dzongkha) | Yes | Yes | Critical for understanding and learning Dzongkha |
| Maori-English Dictionary (New Zealand) | 1840 | General-purpose | Maori-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Austronesian (Maori) | Yes | Yes | Important for the revitalization and teaching of the Maori language | |
| Pashto-English Dictionary (Afghanistan/Pakistan) | 1867 | General-purpose | Pashto-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-Iranian (Pashto) | Yes | Yes | Widely used for translation and education in Pashto |
| Sanskrit-English Dictionary (India) | 1872 | General-purpose | Sanskrit-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Indo-European (Sanskrit) | Yes | Yes | Major historical and linguistic resource for Sanskrit studies |
| Ilocano-English Dictionary (Philippines) | 1904 | General-purpose | Ilocano-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Austronesian (Ilocano) | Yes | Yes | Widely used for learning Ilocano | |
| Akan-Twi Dictionary (Ghana) | 1909 | General-purpose | Akan-Twi dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Niger-Congo (Akan) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for studying the Akan-Twi language |
| Nahuatl-Spanish Dictionary (Mexico) | 1555 | Historical | Nahuatl-Spanish dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Uto-Aztecan (Nahuatl) | Yes | Yes | Significant historical and cultural resource for Nahuatl language |
| Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (Germany) | 1900 | Scholarly | Latin thesaurus | Scholars, academics | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Large | Indo-European (Latin) | Yes | Yes | Major scholarly work on classical Latin vocabulary, covering all known Latin texts. |
| Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon (Ancient Greek) | 1843 | Scholarly | Greek-English lexicon | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Indo-European (Greek) | Yes | Yes | Most comprehensive Ancient Greek-English lexicon, foundational for Greek studies. |
| The Century Dictionary (USA) | 1889 | General-purpose | English language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Indo-European (English) | Yes | Yes | Highly regarded American English dictionary, covering late 19th-century English. |
| Kamus Al-Miftah (Malaysia) | 1937 | General-purpose | Malay-Arabic dictionary | Students, scholars | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Austronesian (Malay) and Afro-Asiatic (Arabic) | Yes | Yes | Early Malay-Arabic dictionary, significant for Islamic scholarship in Malaysia. |
| Totius’ Woordeboek (Afrikaans) | 1933 | General-purpose | Afrikaans language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Germanic (Afrikaans) | Yes | Yes | One of the first comprehensive dictionaries of the Afrikaans language. |
| Croatian Encyclopedia Dictionary (Croatia) | 1950s | General-purpose | Croatian language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Slavic (Croatian) | Yes | Yes | Key dictionary documenting the Croatian language, important for national identity. |
| Diccionario Gallego-Castellano (Spain) | 1863 | Dialect-specific | Galician-Spanish dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Galician) | Yes | Yes | One of the earliest comprehensive dictionaries for Galician. |
| Vocabulaire Orthographique (France) | 1901 | General-purpose | French orthography | Public, scholars | Prescriptive | Limited | No | Small | Romance (French) | Yes | Yes | Early French spelling guide, foundational for orthography. |
| Sanskrit-Wörterbuch (Germany) | 1855 | Etymological | Sanskrit-German dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Sanskrit) | Yes | Yes | Important resource for German scholars studying Sanskrit. |
| Icelandic-English Dictionary (Cleasby-Vigfusson, Iceland) | 1874 | General-purpose | Icelandic-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Germanic (Icelandic) | Yes | Yes | Still influential for the study of Old Norse and Icelandic languages. |
| Dictionnaire Historique de l’Ancien Langage Français (France) | 1844 | Historical | Historical French dictionary | Scholars, historians | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Romance (Old French) | Yes | Yes | Important for documenting medieval French vocabulary and texts. |
| Harper’s Latin Dictionary (USA) | 1879 | General-purpose | Latin-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Latin) | Yes | Yes | Widely used Latin-to-English dictionary in academic settings. |
| Svenska Akademiens Ordbok (Sweden) | 1893 | General-purpose | Swedish language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Large | Germanic (Swedish) | Yes | Yes | Ongoing dictionary project documenting Swedish from its earliest forms. |
| Diccionario de Chilenismos (Chile) | 1901 | Dialect-specific | Chilean Spanish dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Spanish) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive dictionary of regional Chilean Spanish expressions. |
| Académie Française Dictionary (France) | 1694 | General-purpose | French language dictionary | Public, scholars | Prescriptive | Regular | Yes | Large | Romance (French) | Yes | Yes | A standard-setting dictionary for the French language, highly influential. |
| Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (India) | 1899 | Etymological | Sanskrit-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Indo-European (Sanskrit) | Yes | Yes | Widely used by students and scholars for Sanskrit studies. |
| Slownik polszczyzny XVI wieku (Poland) | 1950 | Historical | 16th century Polish dictionary | Scholars, historians | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Medium | Slavic (Polish) | Yes | Yes | Historical dictionary documenting the 16th-century Polish language. |
| Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue (Scotland) | 1931 | Historical | Scottish language dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Germanic (Scots) | Yes | Yes | Major resource for the study of older Scots language. |
| Cassell’s Latin Dictionary (UK) | 1854 | General-purpose | Latin-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Latin) | Yes | Yes | Widely used Latin-to-English dictionary. |
| Norstedts Svensk-Engelsk Ordbok (Sweden) | 1988 | General-purpose | Swedish-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Germanic (Swedish) | Yes | Yes | Major bilingual Swedish-English dictionary. |
| Diccionario de Mexicanismos (Mexico) | 2010 | Dialect-specific | Mexican Spanish dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Spanish) | Yes | Yes | Documents regional Mexican Spanish, highly influential in Mexican linguistics. |
| Slovník Slovenského Jazyka (Slovakia) | 1959 | General-purpose | Slovak language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Slavic (Slovak) | Yes | Yes | Authoritative dictionary for the Slovak language. |
| Albanian-French Dictionary (Albania) | 1908 | General-purpose | Albanian-French dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Albanian) | Yes | Yes | Important dictionary for Albanian and French translation. |
| Alfredo Panzini’s Dizionario Moderno (Italy) | 1905 | General-purpose | Italian language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Italian) | Yes | Yes | Documents new Italian words and slang. |
| Diccionario Maya Cordemex (Mexico) | 1980 | Dialect-specific | Maya-Spanish dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Mayan (Yucatec Maya) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive dictionary for the Yucatec Maya language. |
| Persian-English Dictionary by Steingass (Iran) | 1892 | General-purpose | Persian-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Indo-Iranian (Persian) | Yes | Yes | One of the most comprehensive Persian-English dictionaries. |
| Dictionnaire Latin-Français (France) | 1934 | General-purpose | Latin-French dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Latin) | Yes | Yes | A major Latin-French dictionary, highly influential in France. |
| Cassell’s Italian Dictionary (UK) | 1958 | General-purpose | Italian-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Italian) | Yes | Yes | Widely used Italian-English dictionary. |
| Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Basque (France/Spain) | 1966 | Etymological | Basque etymological dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Isolate (Basque) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive resource for Basque language etymology. |
| Dictionary of the Irish Language (Ireland) | 1913 | Historical | Irish language dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Large | Celtic (Irish) | Yes | Yes | Monumental dictionary documenting Old and Middle Irish. |
| Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca (Italy) | 1612 | Historical | Italian language dictionary | Public, scholars | Prescriptive | Regular | Yes | Large | Romance (Italian) | Yes | Yes | The first Italian dictionary, foundational in setting language standards. |
| Somali-English Dictionary by Zorc (Somalia) | 1992 | General-purpose | Somali-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Afro-Asiatic (Somali) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive resource for Somali-English translation. |
| Hungarian-English Dictionary by Országh (Hungary) | 1959 | General-purpose | Hungarian-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Uralic (Hungarian) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for Hungarian-English translation. |
| Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu (East Africa) | 1981 | General-purpose | Swahili language dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Bantu (Swahili) | Yes | Yes | Standard Swahili dictionary, important for language standardization. |
| Kamus Bahasa Sunda (Indonesia) | 1990 | General-purpose | Sundanese language dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Austronesian (Sundanese) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive dictionary of Sundanese, a language spoken in Java. |
| Dictionnaire Fon-Français (Benin) | 1999 | General-purpose | Fon-French dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Niger-Congo (Fon) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for studying the Fon language and culture. |
| Polish-English Dictionary by Stanisław Stachowski (Poland) | 1971 | General-purpose | Polish-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Slavic (Polish) | Yes | Yes | Widely used resource for Polish-English translation. |
| Diccionario de Cubanismos (Cuba) | 2000 | Dialect-specific | Cuban Spanish dictionary | Public, scholars | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Romance (Spanish) | Yes | Yes | Covers unique expressions and idioms of Cuban Spanish. |
| Oxford Latin Dictionary (UK) | 1968 | General-purpose | Latin dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Large | Indo-European (Latin) | Yes | Yes | Modern Latin dictionary, based on classical sources. |
| The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (Ancient Aramaic) | 1987 | Scholarly | Aramaic lexicon | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Large | Afro-Asiatic (Aramaic) | Yes | Yes | Documents the multiple dialects of ancient Aramaic, essential for biblical and ancient Near Eastern studies. |
| Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary (India) | 1953 | Scholarly | Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Indo-European (Sanskrit) | Yes | Yes | Documents hybrid language used in Buddhist texts, essential for the study of Buddhist literature. |
| Kangxi Dictionary (China) | 1716 | General-purpose | Classical Chinese dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Large | Sino-Tibetan (Chinese) | Yes | Yes | Authoritative resource for classical Chinese characters, foundational in Chinese lexicography. |
| Groot Woordenboek Afrikaans en Nederlands (South Africa) | 1950 | General-purpose | Afrikaans-Dutch dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Germanic (Afrikaans, Dutch) | Yes | Yes | Authoritative dictionary for Afrikaans and Dutch, essential for bilingual speakers and scholars. |
| Bosnian-English Dictionary by Francis Joseph Steingass (Bosnia) | 1884 | General-purpose | Bosnian-English dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Slavic (Bosnian) | Yes | Yes | Important resource for Bosnian-English translation. |
| Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (Hebrew) | 1843 | Etymological | Hebrew-Aramaic lexicon | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Afro-Asiatic (Hebrew, Aramaic) | Yes | Yes | Key lexicon for biblical Hebrew and ancient Aramaic studies. |
| Slownik Etymologiczny Języka Polskiego (Poland) | 1927 | Etymological | Polish etymological dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Multiple editions | Yes | Medium | Slavic (Polish) | Yes | Yes | Etymological dictionary, essential for studying the roots of the Polish language. |
| Bamana-English Dictionary (Mali) | 1984 | General-purpose | Bamana-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Niger-Congo (Bamana) | Yes | Yes | Key resource for studying the Bamana language, spoken in Mali. |
| Le Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse (France) | 1863 | General-purpose | French encyclopedic dictionary | Public, students | Descriptive | Ongoing | Yes | Large | Romance (French) | Yes | Yes | Major French dictionary and encyclopedia, highly influential in French-speaking world. |
| Korean-English Dictionary by Samuel E. Martin (Korea) | 1961 | General-purpose | Korean-English dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Koreanic (Korean) | Yes | Yes | Comprehensive dictionary for Korean-English translation. |
| Diccionario Quechua-Español (Peru) | 1608 | Historical | Quechua-Spanish dictionary | Scholars, students | Descriptive | Limited | Yes | Medium | Quechuan (Quechua) | Yes | Yes | Documents Quechua, essential for the study of Andean languages. |
Part V: Milestones in Lexicography (17th-18th Centuries)
The Age of Enlightenment and the Growth of Dictionaries
The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of great intellectual and cultural ferment, known as the Age of Enlightenment. This era witnessed a surge in lexicographical activity, as scholars sought to document and understand the complexities of language.
The creation of the “Dictionary” in 1755, which is widely regarded as one of America’s most important contributions to dictionaries, is a significant achievement by Samuel Johnson. Johnson’s dictionary was groundbreaking in its scope and depth, providing definitions, etymologies, and usage examples for thousands of words. It had a profound impact on the English language, helping to standardize spelling and grammar and shaping the way English is used today.
In Italy, the Accademia della Crusca published a significant Italian dictionary in 1612, which aimed to preserve and promote the purity of the Italian language. This dictionary became a model for lexicographers worldwide, setting a high standard for lexicographical accuracy and scholarship.
In France, the Dictionnaire de l’Académie française (1694) became a key reference for the French language. This dictionary was created by a group of scholars appointed by the French government and was intended to standardize French spelling, grammar, and usage.
The 18th century also saw the development of dictionaries in other European languages, such as Spanish, German, and Russian. These dictionaries played a crucial role in promoting national identity and preserving linguistic heritage.
The 19th Century and the Rise of National Dictionaries
The 19th century was a period of great political and social change, characterized by the rise of nation-states and the growth of nationalism. This era also witnessed a renewed interest in language and linguistics, leading to the development of comprehensive national dictionaries.
One of the most ambitious dictionary projects of the 19th century was the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), which began in the mid-1800s and was not completed until 1928. The OED aimed to document every word in the English language, along with their histories and etymologies. It remains one of the most comprehensive dictionaries to this day.
In the United States, Noah Webster’s “American Dictionary of the English Language” (1828) played a significant role in establishing American English as a distinct dialect. Webster’s dictionary sought to promote American usage and spelling, differentiating it from British English.
In other parts of the world, national dictionaries were also being developed. In Germany, the Grimm Brothers’ “Deutsches Wörterbuch” (1838-1961) was a monumental undertaking that documented the German language in all its regional and historical variations.
The 19th century also saw the emergence of specialized dictionaries, such as dictionaries of science, technology, and law. These dictionaries catered to the needs of professionals and scholars, providing specialized terminology and definitions.
The 20th Century and the Digital Age
The 20th century was a period of rapid technological change, with the advent of radio, television, and computers. These technologies had a profound impact on language and communication, and they also influenced the development of dictionaries.
In the mid-20th century, the first electronic dictionaries appeared, which were stored on magnetic tape or optical discs. These early electronic dictionaries were limited in their functionality, but they paved the way for the development of more sophisticated digital dictionaries.
The Internet’s arrival in the late 20th and early 21st centuries caused a shift in how people use and access dictionaries. Online dictionaries, such as Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary Online, offer a wealth of information at the click of a button. These dictionaries can be searched by word, phrase, or topic, and they often include audio pronunciations, usage examples, and etymological information.
The digital age has also led to the development of new types of dictionaries, such as corpus-based dictionaries and historical dictionaries. Corpus-based dictionaries are based on large collections of text data, which can be used to analyse language patterns and trends. Historical dictionaries trace the development of words and meanings over time, providing valuable insights into the history of language.
The history of lexicography is a long and fascinating one, with dictionaries playing a vital role in shaping language, culture, and society. From the early word lists of ancient civilizations to the sophisticated online dictionaries of today, dictionaries have evolved to meet the changing needs of language users. As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see further innovations in lexicography, ensuring that dictionaries remain essential tools for understanding and communicating in the years to come.
Part VI: The Digital Age and the Future of Dictionaries
The Impact of Technology on Lexicography
The 20th and 21st centuries have witnessed a profound transformation in the way dictionaries are created, accessed, and used. The advent of digital technology has revolutionized lexicography, leading to the development of new types of dictionaries and new ways of accessing information.
One of the most significant developments in the digital age has been the creation of online dictionaries. These dictionaries offer a wealth of information at the click of a button, including definitions, pronunciations, etymologies, and usage examples. Online dictionaries are often more accessible and user-friendly than traditional print dictionaries, making them popular among students, researchers, and the general public.
Another important development has been the creation of corpus-based dictionaries. These dictionaries are based on large collections of text data, which can be used to analyze language patterns and trends. Corpus-based dictionaries can provide valuable insights into the way language is used in different contexts, making them useful for linguists, writers, and translators.
The digital age has also led to the development of specialized dictionaries, such as dictionaries of slang, jargon, and technical terms. These dictionaries cater to the needs of specific groups of people, providing them with the information they need to understand and communicate effectively.
Challenges and Opportunities
The digital age presents both challenges and opportunities for lexicographers. One of the main challenges is the rapid pace of language change, which can make it difficult to keep dictionaries up-to-date. Words and phrases are given new meanings as they develop, and the meaning of old words changes over time. Lexicographers must work hard to stay on top of these changes and ensure that their dictionaries are accurate and relevant.
Furthermore, the Internet is plagued by falsehoods and deceptions. This can make it difficult to distinguish between reliable and unreliable sources of information. Dictionaries can play a crucial role in combating misinformation by providing accurate and authoritative definitions.
Despite these challenges, the digital age also presents many opportunities for lexicographers. The availability of large amounts of digital text data can be used to create more comprehensive and accurate dictionaries. Additionally, the development of new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and natural language processing, can help lexicographers automate certain tasks and improve the efficiency of their work.
The Future of Dictionaries
The future of dictionaries is likely to be shaped by ongoing technological advancements. As artificial intelligence and natural language processing continue to develop, we can expect to see even more sophisticated dictionaries that can provide personalised information and insights.
One possibility is the development of intelligent dictionaries that can learn from user interactions and adapt to individual needs. These dictionaries could provide context-sensitive definitions, suggest synonyms and antonyms, and even offer translations in multiple languages.
Another possibility is the creation of augmented reality dictionaries that can provide information about words and phrases in real-time. For example, a user could point their smartphone at a word in a book or on a sign, and the dictionary app would instantly display the definition and pronunciation.
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected and globalised, the role of dictionaries will only become more important. Dictionaries can help us to bridge cultural and linguistic divides, promote understanding, and foster cooperation.
Conclusion
The history of dictionaries is a long and fascinating one, with these reference works playing a vital role in shaping language, culture, and society. From the early word lists of ancient civilizations to the sophisticated online dictionaries of today, dictionaries have evolved to meet the changing needs of language users.
The digital age has revolutionised lexicography, leading to the development of new types of dictionaries and new ways of accessing information. While the challenges of keeping up with language change and combating misinformation remain, the opportunities for innovation and improvement in the field of lexicography are also significant.
As we look to the future, we can expect to see even more sophisticated and innovative dictionaries that will continue to play a vital role in our lives. Whether we are students, researchers, or simply curious about the world around us, dictionaries will remain essential tools for understanding and communicating effectively.